November 1992 Fighting
between SPLA factions led by John Garang and William Nyoun
is reported to have left at least 2,000 dead in the Kongor
and Waat areas.
23 February 1993 The
Sudanese government and the SPLA issue a joint communiqué
following a meeting in Entebbe, under the auspices of Ugandan
President Yoweri Museveni. Both sides agree to proceed to
Abuja Two conference.
"The Entebbe Declaration",
Sudanow (Khartoum), March 1993
17 April 1993 The
New York Times reports that increased rebel factional
fighting and an attack on a UN relief worker in Kongor has
resulted in a suspension of humanitarian aid and the removal
of UN workers from the area.
26 April-17 May 1993 The
second Abuja peace talks are held in Nigeria. A wide number
of constitutional, political and social issues are discussed.
The peace-talks focus on several themes: power-sharing between
central authority and federated states, the powers of a
central authority, the use of referendums as a means of
judging the wishes of people in southern Sudan. It is agreed
that any future dispensation would involve a distinct separation
of powers within Sudan. A number of interim measures are
discussed, including security and military considerations,
the resettlement and rehabilitation of those affected by
the civil war and the status of the south during any future
interim period. A considerable amount of common ground is
covered and agreed, and the Nigerian hosts of the talks
begin drafting the final communiqué. John Garang
arrives in Abuja one day before the end of the talks and
demands the redrafting of what had previously been agreed
upon - to include that residual powers not specifically
vested with central government should devolve to the states,
a reversal of accepted federal models whereby those powers
not vested with the states are reserved to the federal government.
These demands effectively derail the negotiations. The Nigerian
government issues a statement outlining the course of the
talks, the agreements and disagreements, and calling upon
the two sides to continue their dialogue. Nigeria also declares
its willingness to continue its mediation efforts.
April-May 1993 The
government meets in Nairobi with the SPLA-United faction.
There is agreement for southern Sudan to be a separate entity
within a united federal state. Political power and wealth
are to be allocated between the federal state and southern
institutions. National laws are to be "based on general
principles common to the States" with states being
able to enact their own "complementary" legislation.
August 1993 The
Sudanese government holds a number of meetings with the
SPLA-United faction at Fashoda in Upper Nile. Agreements
not to obstruct movement on the Nile and to open land corridors
and not to obstruct aid and development services in the
Upper Nile area are arrived at.
18 August 1993 The
United States government lists Sudan as a state sponsor
of terrorism. Donald Petterson, the United States ambassador
to Sudan at the time of Sudan's listing, records that he
was "surprised" that Sudan was put on the terrorism
list. Petterson states that while he was aware of "collusion"
between "some elements of the Sudanese Government"
and various "terrorist" organisations: "I
did not think this evidence was sufficiently conclusive
to put Sudan on the U.S. government's list of state sponsors
of terrorism."
Donald Petterson, Inside
Sudan: Political Islam, Conflict and Catastrophe, Westview
Books, Boulder,1999, p.69
17 September 1993 Former
United States President Jimmy Carter asked to see what evidence
there was for Sudan's listing as a state sponsor of terrorism.
Carter was told there was no evidence: "In fact, when
I later asked an assistant secretary of state he said they
did not have any proof, but there were strong allegations."
The Independent
(London), 17 September 1993
September 1993 The
Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD)
forms a peace committee. Chaired by Kenya, it is made up
of Eritrea, Ethiopia and Uganda. Sudanese President Omer
al-Bashir welcomes the initiative and expresses his hope
that it will enhance similar Nigerian efforts to achieve
peace in Sudan.
14 October 1993 The
SPLA states that a separate state for Sudan may be the only
chance for peace. SPLA spokesman Bius Subek states: "Nobody
in southern Sudan wants to remain a part of the country.We
want a separate Sudan now. No more confederacy. If we reach
an agreement, then great. But Khartoum has indicated that
it's not willing to work with the south."
A Sudan embassy spokesman,
Safwat Siddig, denies that Khartoum government wants to
impose Islamic law in the south. He states: "Nobody
will harm them unless they violate the law in the north.
The law is clear and just. They don't have to become Islamic."
"Sudan Rebels Believe
Partition Only Hope", The Tampa Tribune, 14
October 1993
16 October 1993 The
Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation votes
to disband itself and asks General Omer al-Bashir to assume
the post of president.
19 October 1993 The
government announces political reforms aimed at preparing
for Presidential, legislative and local elections.
20-22 October 1993 Negotiations
between the two factions of the SPLA, SPLA-United led by
Riek Machar and John Garang's SPLA-Mainstream, are arranged
by Rep. Harry Johnston, Chairman of the House Foreign Affairs
Africa Subcommittee and Edward Moose, US Under-Secretary
of State for African Affairs, in Washington. An eight-point
plan to end the civil war is agreed, but neither side signs.
Both claim to be the only legitimate representative of the
Sudanese rebel movement.
2 November 1993 A
cease-fire between the SPLA and SPLA-United broke down following
attacks made SPLA-United forces.
February 1994 Sudan
is re-divided into 26 states instead of nine. The executive
and legislative power of the states is expanded as part
of a policy of rolling devolution.
17-23 March 1994 The
government and SPLA meet in Nairobi for the first time for
peace talks under the auspices of the regional Intergovernmental
Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD). Both sides
agree principles of neutral humanitarian assistance carried
out by Operation Lifeline Sudan and corridors of tranquillity
for ten weeks for child vaccination.
13 May 1994 The
Sudanese government invites American and other Western experts
to help Sudan with "technical know-how" on federalism
and to help Sudan draft a power-sharing plan for consideration
by the government and rebels. The Christian Science Monitor
reported that: "Western nations may have a rare opportunity
to help end a 12-year civil war in Sudan.Sudan's top leadership
has opened the door to Western help in peace negotiations
and in examining the touchy issue of alleged government
human rights abuses." The American ambassador stated
that the opening should be followed up: "There is a
need for someone to help out on the negotiating process."
The paper also quoted John Prendergast, a prominent Sudan
analyst within the United States, who called the offer "a
very big opening. I think we should take them up on it immediately".
"Sudanese Leaders Open
Door To a Western Peace Effort", The Christian Science
Monitor, Boston, 23 May 1994.
14-16 May 1994 The
government convenes the Juba Political Forum. This meeting
is attended by several hundred southern Sudanese representatives,
including the Vice-President George Kongor and several state
governors. There are also 20 representatives from each of
the ten southern states. The 'Juba Declaration' affirms
the unity of Sudan, endorses the process of federalisation
and condemns the continuation of conflict.
17-20 May 1994 The
second round of IGADD-sponsored peace talks take place in
Nairobi. The government outlines a unitary federal state
with sharia as a source of law with some exemptions for
non-Muslims. The SPLA put forward self-determination and
a complete rejection of sharia. There is no political agreement.
The mediators issue a 'Declaration of Principles' outlining
a secular state with guarantees of equality. If agreement
cannot be reached on this then a referendum on southern
self-determination is envisaged.
19-29 July 1994 The
third round of IGADD-sponsored talks are held in Nairobi.
No progress is made on the issue of a secular state. The
Khartoum government accepts the principle of a referendum
on southern self-determination. The government declares
a cease-fire effective 23 July.
23 August 1994 Speaking
in 1994, the then director-general of the Sudanese Foreign
Ministry, and subsequently Sudanese ambassador to the United
States, Mahdi Ibrahim, challenged American claims of Sudanese
involvement in terrorism: "How can you prove a negative?
We have always believed that in Western countries the defendant
is innocent until proven guilty. In our case, it is not
like that. Until today, no information has been provided
about a terrorist harboured in our country."
The Independent,
London, 23 August 1994.
6 September 1994 The
fourth round of IGADD talks between the government and SPLA
are held in Nairobi. No progress whatsoever is made and
the meeting is adjourned.
27 September 1994 President
al-Bashir announces the formation of an 89-member Supreme
Council for Peace in order to coordinate efforts to achieve
peace. Lino Rol Deng is appointed chairman.
11 October 1994 Dr
Ghazi Saleheddin Atabani, the minister-of-state for political
affairs, speaking during the Inter-Religious Dialogue conference
in Khartoum, outlined the government's position on the conflict
in southern Sudan: "Such a problem has been with us
for 40 years, and draws upon a long history of colonial
policy aimed at creating a separate culture in southern
Sudan, a culture of hatred and animosity against northern
Sudan. This is not a problem that can be solved militarily.
We are convinced that the solution to this problem must
be a long-term one, must be expressed in the policies of
the government, economic, political, and cultural policies.[W]e
have introduced a federal system. The idea of federalism
came from southern Sudan. But northern politicians had always
been suspicious of federalism. I remember a demonstration
in the streets of Khartoum shouting 'federation is separation.'
They thought of federalism as separation. This is the first
government to offer federalism to the whole of Sudan, because
Sudan is so vast and diverse, language-wise and so forth.
Now we have federalism, and in the south this includes economic
development and cultural activities whose aim is to raze
to the ground the psychological barriers that the colonialists
established.which cut off the south from the north completely."
"Sudanese Leaders Deal
with the Issues", Executive Intelligence Review,
1994 at www.aboutsudan.com
15 February 1995 The
United States National Security Advisor, Antony Lake, addresses
a Centre for Strategic Studies conference. He states that:
"We will be working with other governments in the region
to see how we can best contain the influence of the Sudanese
Government until it changes its views and begins to behave
in accordance with the norms of international behaviour
that we think governments should follow"
3 March 1995 The
London-based Africa Confidential newsletter reports
that the Sudanese peace process is being undermined by foreign
governments: "Important shifts in policy and strategy
are emerging in response to the continuing war in Sudan.
Western officials have made a subtle shift from supporting
the Nairobi peace process as such to hinting that a new
government in Khartoum is needed to implement it. Officials
of various factions of the Sudan People's Liberation Army,
who once spoke as if a peace agreement with the National
Islamic Front were possible, now talk of the prior need
for a new government.The United States has caught and fed
this mood."
"Opposition and Foreign
Governments Change Strategy", Africa Confidential
(London), 3 March 1995
18 March 1995 SPLA
leader John Garang announces that he has decided, in cooperation
with northern opposition parties, to take the war to northern
Sudan, including Khartoum, via a new force, the "New
Sudan Brigade". He also states that he is awaiting
a delegation from opposition parties to discuss the formation
of a committee to act as a government in exile.
"Garang, Khalid Announce
Formation of 'New Sudan Brigade' to Spread War to North",
Summary of World Broadcasts, 18 March 1995
22 March 1995 In
testimony before the United States House of Representatives
Subcommittee on Africa, Edward Brynn, the deputy Assistant
Secretary-of-State for African Affairs, states that: "We
will maintain bilateral and international pressure on Khartoum.
We have not and will not stop looking for ways in which
to bring changes in Khartoum's behaviour.The Sudanese government.must
understand that those same policies and practices which
we find threatening and objectionable will eventually cause
its downfall."
Brynn also comments on the
Sudan's northern opposition: "The political opposition
is generally discredited in the eyes of many Sudanese, having
been associated with past governments which.mismanaged the
economy, prosecuted the civil war, allowed the humanitarian
crisis to deepen, and show little respect for human rights."
Commenting on the SPLA and SSIM, Brynn states: "The
southern rebels also have little to offer the Sudanese people.are
fractured and factioned, both internally and against each
other. The SPLA and SSIM have poor human rights records.Long
standing inter-tribal conflicts make other commanders quick
to switch sides and turn their weapons on each other.Forced
conscription of boys by rebel militias has also been a problem.both
the SPLA and SSIM regularly loot, harass and obstruct international
relief efforts for needy southern Sudanese."
"The Crisis in Sudan",
Hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee
on International Relations, House of Representatives, 104th
Congress, First Session, 22 March 1995, US Government Printing
Office, Washington-DC, 1995
27 March 1995 An
initiative brokered by former American President Jimmy Carter
results in the government declaring a two-month unilateral
cease-fire. The SPLA and SSIM respond by also declaring
cease-fires.
May-June 1995 In
an interview for the US journal Foreign Affairs,
Dr Hassan al-Turabi outlined his concepts of Islamic government
and society:
"What would an Islamic
Government mean?.The model is very clear; the scope of government
is limited. Law is not the only agency of social control.
Moral norms, individual conscience, all these are very important,
and they are autonomous. Intellectual attitudes toward Islam
are not going to be regulated or codified at all. The presumption
is that people are free. The religious freedom not just
of non-Muslims, but even of Muslims who have different views,
is going to be guaranteed. I personally have views that
run against all the orthodox schools of law on the status
of women, on the court testimony of non-Muslims, on the
law of apostasy. Some people say that I have been influenced
by the West and that I border on apostasy myself.I don't
accept the condemnation of Salman Rushdie. If a Muslim wakes
up in the morning and says he doesn't believe any more,
that's his business. There has never been any question of
inhibiting people's freedom to express any understanding
of Islam. The function of government is not total."
Milton Viorst, 'Sudan's
Islamic Experiment: Fundamentalism in Power', Foreign
Affairs, May/June 1995, Volume 74, Number 3, p.53
27 May 1995 The
Sudanese government extends its cease-fire for a further
two months.
30 May 1995 The
SSIM and the SPLA agree to accept federalism as the basis
for peace negotiations with the government.
June 1995 The
National Democratic Alliance convenes a conference on "fundamental
issues". The Asmara declaration states a general right
of self-determination by way of referendum for the south,
Nuba mountains, Ingessena Hills, Abyei, while committing
itself to working for reforms to encourage unity. The SPLM/SPLA
joins northern opposition groups in the National Democratic
Alliance. Mohammed Osman al-Mirghani, the leader of the
Democratic Unionist Party and spiritual head of the Khatmiyyah
sect, becomes Chairman of the NDA: Mubarak al-Fadel al-Mahdi,
a cousin of Sadiq al-Mahdi and senior Umma Party leader,
becomes Secretary-General of the organisation. The conference
also called for "opening up new fronts (in the East
or West, or both) and preparing for a revolutionary insurrection
in the North". The Eritrean government confiscates
the Sudanese embassy and turns it over to the NDA.
Indian Ocean Newsletter
(Paris), 1 July 1995
26 June 1995 Egyptian
terrorists attempt to assassinate Egyptian President Hosni
Mubarak during an Organisation of African Unity meeting
in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It is alleged that three of the
gunmen involved have fled into the Sudan.
July 1995 SPLA
forces attack two villages in Ganyiel region in southern
Sudan. The rebels murder 210 villagers, of whom 30 were
men, 53 were women and 127 were children. The United Nations
Special Rapporteur on human rights in the Sudan reported
that:
"Eyewitnesses reported
that some of the victims, mostly women, children and the
elderly, were caught while trying to escape and killed with
spears and pangas. M.N., a member of the World Food Programme
relief committee at Panyajor, lost four of her five children
(aged 8-15 years). The youngest child was thrown into the
fire after being shot. D.K. witnessed three women with their
babies being caught. Two of the women were shot and one
was killed with a panga. Their babies were all killed with
pangas. A total of 1,987 households were reported destroyed
and looted and 3, 500 cattle were taken."
Situation of Human Rights
in the Sudan, UN Special Rapporteur Gaspar Biro, E/CN.4/1996/62,
20 February 1996
July 1995 The
chairman of the Supreme Council for Peace, Lino Rol Deng,
defined the government's concept of "peace from within":
"Peace from within is simply peace in society with
a view to restoring a normal state of affairs in war-affected
areas, and the removal of alienation between north and south
in order to build confidence and consolidate people-to-people
relations. Peace from within is the ending of war, the promotion
of the concept of peace among all sections of society, and
the rehabilitation of heath, educational and agricultural
infrastructure in war-affected areas."
Asked about peace talks
in Abuja and Nairobi - "peace from the outside"
- Deng said: "There is no such entity as 'peace from
the outside', as the peace at issue is 100% Sudanese. All
contacts are made with the aim of supporting peace from
within and convincing rebel factions to join the initiative."
"Interview with Lino
Rol Deng, Chairman of the Supreme Council for Peace",
Sudanow (Khartoum), July 1995.
30 July 1995 The
South Sudan Independence Movement reports that its forces
have clashed with SPLA units in western Upper Nile.
22 August 1995 President
al-Bashir announces presidential and parliamentary elections
are to be held in 1996.
October 1995 The
Eritrean head-of-state Issias Afeworki stated his regime's
hostility to Sudan: "We are out to see that this government
is not there any more...We will give weapons to anyone committed
to overthrowing them".
The Economist (London),
14 October 1995
26 October 1995 The
government reports that government forces have clashed with
Ugandan-backed SPLA forces in the southern town of Fargouk.
10 January 1996 Southern
rebel leader William Nyoun is assassinated by members of
the Southern Sudan Independence Army.
12 February 1996 The
electoral commission announces that there will be 49 presidential
candidates in the forthcoming elections.
6-17 March 1996 Presidential
and parliamentary elections are held in Sudan. President
Bashir is elected in a contest with 40 other candidates.
He secures 60 percent of the popular vote in a 70 percent
turn out. It is also the first direct election for President
ever to take office in Sudan. The parliamentary elections
see the return of 275 members of Parliament. The elections
are observed by various international bodies, including
the Arab League and the Organisation of African Unity. Ambassador
Kemoko Keita, leader of the OAU delegation, in his report
states: "This election is a historic occasion, the
first direct Presidential election in Sudan, and the first
time the voters in the newly demarcated States have the
opportunity to select their representatives to the new National
Assembly".
1 April 1996 Dr
Hassan al-Turabi is elected as the Speaker of Parliament.
6 April 1996 Cairo
radio reports that Umma Party leader Sadiq al-Mahdi has
refused a request to join the Sudanese government.
10 April 1996 The
government signs a Peace Charter with the South Sudan Independence
Movement and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (Bahr
al-Ghazal Group) led by Kerubino Bol Kuanyin, a former deputy
commander of the SPLA. The charter provides for cease-fires,
followed by elections and a referendum on the status of
southern Sudan.
21 April 1996 A
long interview with Mustafa Hamza, one of the three terrorists
said to be in Sudan, was published in Al-Hayat newspaper.
The only named suspect in the assassination attempt, Hamza
was subsequently located and interviewed by the international
media in Afghanistan. Hamza stated that the Egyptian group,
'Al-Gamaa al-Islamiya', was responsible for the murder attempt.
He stated that most of the gunmen involved came from Pakistan,
travelling on passports issued by an Arab country, and that
one or two men had entered Ethiopia from Sudan, having received
visas from the Ethiopian embassy in Khartoum. He said that
only one of the gunmen had left through Sudan and that he
was now in a third country. Hamza stated that Sheikh Omer
Abdel Rahman was the movement's spiritual leader. Al-Hayat
reported that Hamza stated that there were "deep differences"
between the ruling Islamic Front in the Sudan and his Group.
He stated that the Sudanese model of Islam was too liberal
for him and accused the Sudanese Government [of following
a] distorted and deviated application of Islam".
26 April 1996 The
United Nations Security Council invokes measures contained
in Resolutions 1054 and 1070 and imposes diplomatic sanctions
on Sudan. These sanctions requested that all states reduce
the number and level of staff at Sudanese diplomatic missions
and consular posts. States were also called upon to restrict
the movement through their countries of members of the Sudanese
government. International and regional organisations were
also requested not to hold conferences in Sudan.
30 April 1996 The
SPLA and SSIM sign a unification agreement to merge their
organisations.
11 May 1996 Eritrean
leader Afeworki states that his regime will support Sudanese
rebels: "Eritrea will provide any type of support...The
sky is the limit." Sudanese rebels were allowed to
establish several training camps in western Eritrea. The
Eritrean government also admitted training some of the rebels
themselves. The United States government was also directly
involved in this training process.
The Guardian, London,11
May 1996
30 May 1996 The
SSIM reports that SPLA forces have attacked SSIM positions.
7 June 1996 Ethiopian
involvement in attempts to destabilise Sudan was reported
by Africa Confidential: "As in the days of Colonel
Mengistu's dictatorship, the Ethiopians are helping train
the SPLA and sending it arms through Gambella. This time
they are encouraged not by Russia, but by the USA."
Africa Confidential
(London), 7 June 1996
June 1996 There
is fighting between the SPLA and SSIM in eastern Upper Nile.
2 July 1996 The
SPLA is further split when a group of the Nuba Mountain
SPLA breaks with John Garang.
31 July 1996 The
government signs a political charter with the Sudan People's
Liberation Army/Nuba Mountains Central Committee led by
Commander Mohammed Haroun Kafi.
14 August 1996 Sudanese
President Omer al-Bashir declares an amnesty for southern
rebels. He states: "We are extending our hand to all
who seek the national interests of the homeland".
"Bashir Declares Amnesty
to Southern Rebels", News Article by PANA, 14 August
1996
16 August 1996 The
Sudanese government responds to claims that Khartoum in
any way supports terrorism: "Sudan has not, and will
not, allow its territory to be used for any act of terror
or to be used as a shelter for terrorists or by those who
have eluded justice. Sudan, like many other states, suffers
day after day with those innocent civilians who lose their
lives or who are harmed as a result of terrorist acts perpetrated
in many parts of the world. Killing women and children,
terrorizing peaceful citizens, destroying property and taking
innocent civilians hostage cannot be accepted under any
divine law; nor can they be accepted by any human being
who believes in justice and peace."
Speech by the Sudanese Permanent
Representative to the United Nations, before the Security
Council, 16 August 1996.
October 1996 The
NDA holds a conference in Asmara, Eritrea. They call on
regional institutions to overthrow the Sudanese government.
26 December 1996 The
New York Times says of Dr Hassan al-Turabi in 1996:
"He voices a tolerant version of political Islam -
far less conservative than Saudi Arabia's, far less militant
than Iran's".
1997 Commenting
on US policy toward Sudan in his book Crisis Response:
Humanitarian Band-Aids in Sudan and Somalia, John Prendergast
writes: "The Parallels to Central America in the 1980s
are stark. The US provided covert aid to the Contras (and
official aid to the regimes in El Salvador, Honduras and
Guatamala) and because of domestic public pressure urged
numerous reforms on the Contras (and the three central American
governments), especially in the area of human rights and
institutional reform (though the pressures were undercut
by an administration in Washington not serious about human
rights)".
John Prendergast, Crisis
Response: Humanitarian Band-Aids in Sudan and Somalia,
Pluto Press, London, 1997, p. 77
